@book{volkens_manifesto_2021,
	address = {Berlin},
	title = {The {Manifesto} {Project} {Dataset} - {Codebook}. {Manifesto} {Project} ({MRG} / {CMP} / {MARPOR}). {Version} 2021a.},
	publisher = {Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin für Sozialforschung (WZB)},
	author = {Volkens, Andrea and Burst, Tobias and Krause, Werner and Lehmann, Pola and Matthieß, Theres and Regel, Sven and Weßels, Bernhard and Zehnter, Lisa},
	year = {2021},
	howpublished = "Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin für Sozialforschung (WZB). https://manifesto-project.wzb.eu/down/data/2021a/codebooks/codebook_MPDataset_MPDS2021a.pdf",
}

@misc{wessels.2011,
author = "We{\ss}els, Bernhard and Giebler, Heiko and Schmitt, Hermann",
title = "European Parliament Election Study 2009, Candidate Study (Europ{\"a}ische Kandidatenstudie 2009) - Reduzierte Version",
year = "2011",
howpublished = "GESIS Data Archive, Cologne. ZA5048 Data file Version 2.0.0, https://doi.org/10.4232/1.11323",
}

@article{rapeli_comparing_2014,
	title = {Comparing {Local}, {National} and {EU} {Knowledge}: {The} {Ignorant} {Public} {Reassessed}},
	volume = {37},
	issn = {1467-9477},
	shorttitle = {Comparing {Local}, {National} and {EU} {Knowledge}},
	url = {},
	doi = {},
	abstract = {Empirical research has repeatedly confirmed the political ignorance of ordinary citizens, but democracy prevails. This article offers a new perspective into this paradox by arguing that typical political knowledge indicators are inadequate because they only measure national-level knowledge. The study makes two contributions. First, it compares national, local and European Union political knowledge. Second, it does so with a nationally representative dataset, which comes from a survey from Finland (n = 1,020) devoted solely to political knowledge. Two questions are posed: Are the sociodemographic determinants of knowledge the same on all levels of politics? And is public ignorance equally widespread on all levels? Challenging some established findings, the study shows that people in rural communities know more about local politics than urban counterparts, that women know more about local politics than men and that young people are equally knowledgeable about the EU as older people. The results thus indicate that people are to varying extents knowledgeable about varying aspects of politics.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2022-01-18},
	journal = {Scandinavian Political Studies},
	author = {Rapeli, Lauri},
	year = {2014},
	note = {},
	pages = {428--446},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/schuermann/Zotero/storage/FNAY5XFU/Rapeli - 2014 - Comparing Local, National and EU Knowledge The Ig.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/schuermann/Zotero/storage/5LD778LL/1467-9477.html:text/html},
}

@article{campbell_understanding_2008,
	title = {Understanding {Men}’s and {Women}’s {Political} {Interests}: {Evidence} from a {Study} of {Gendered} {Political} {Attitudes}},
	volume = {18},
	issn = {1745-7289},
	shorttitle = {Understanding {Men}’s and {Women}’s {Political} {Interests}},
	url = {},
	doi = {},
	abstract = {That women generally have lower levels of interest in politics than men is a well rehearsed political fact (Andersen, 1975; Baxter \& Lansing, 1983; Burns, 2001; Burns et al., 2001; Campbell et al., 1954; Hayes \& Bean, 1993; Tolleson Rinehart, 1992) but less is known about the underlying causes of these differences. This paper attempts to unpick the concept of political interest, to either confirm that women are less interested in politics than men or to test whether women and men are simply interested in different things. We assess whether barriers to women’s participation in politics, such as child rearing, have a detrimental effect on political interest. Finally we consider whether the process of gendered socialization, whereby men are more likely than women to have a high sense of agency, whilst women are more likely than men to have a high sense of communion with others, can account for the sex differences in political interest.},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2022-01-18},
	journal = {Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties},
	author = {Campbell, Rosie and Winters, Kristi},
	month = feb,
	year = {2008},
	note = {},
	pages = {53--74},
	file = {Campbell and Winters - 2008 - Understanding Men’s and Women’s Political Interest.pdf:/Users/schuermann/Zotero/storage/EBJFRIK3/Campbell and Winters - 2008 - Understanding Men’s and Women’s Political Interest.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/schuermann/Zotero/storage/K47ZNWN3/17457280701858623.html:text/html},
}

@article{coffe_women_2013,
	title = {Women {Stay} {Local}, {Men} {Go} {National} and {Global}? {Gender} {Differences} in {Political} {Interest}},
	volume = {69},
	issn = {1573-2762},
	shorttitle = {Women {Stay} {Local}, {Men} {Go} {National} and {Global}?},
	abstract = {This study challenges the idea that women are less interested in politics than men by arguing that women are not less interested in politics but, rather, are interested in different issues. I decompose the concept of general political interest into interest in local, national and international issues and investigate gender differences in interest in these different issues, as well as in politics in general. Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression analyses, based on data collected in 2011 (British Participation Survey) on a representative sample of British citizens (N = 1,353), reveal no substantial gender difference in interest in local issues. Once political efficacy is controlled for, however, women are more likely than men to be interested in local issues. Furthermore, women are less likely to be interested in national and international issues, as well as politics in general, than men. Further analyses demonstrate that part of the gap in general political interest may be explained by the fact that interest in politics is primarily understood as interest in national politics, an issue in which men are more likely to be interested than women. In summary, the results highlight the need to clarify the concept of ‘politics’ and to move towards the notion that women and men are interested in different issues, rather than the notion that women are less politically interested than men.},
	language = {en},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2022-01-12},
	journal = {Sex Roles},
	author = {Coffé, Hilde},
	month = sep,
	year = {2013},
	pages = {323--338},
	file = {Springer Full Text PDF:/Users/schuermann/Zotero/storage/EY795VEZ/Coffé - 2013 - Women Stay Local, Men Go National and Global Gend.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{meeks_gendered_2016,
	title = {Gendered styles, gendered differences: {Candidates}’ use of personalization and interactivity on {Twitter}},
	volume = {13},
	issn = {1933-1681},
	shorttitle = {Gendered styles, gendered differences},
	abstract = {Historically, a “feminine communication style” has not been a welcomed addition to the masculinized arena of American campaigning. But this style’s personalized and interactive elements have started to gain a foothold in digital campaigning because it mimics the intimacy of retail politics and face-to-face campaigning. To examine whether candidates are incorporating a feminine communication style in a mediated campaign setting, this study features a content analysis of U.S. Senate candidates’ campaign Twitter feeds during the 2012 election cycle, and explores the differences across candidate gender and electoral success for personalization and interactivity. Results revealed that men and women were similar in their incorporation of personalization, and women were more interactive than men. Further, the type of personalization and interactivity contributed differently to electoral success for women and men.},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2022-01-12},
	journal = {Journal of Information Technology \& Politics},
	author = {Meeks, Lindsey},
	month = oct,
	year = {2016},
	note = {Publisher: Routledge
\_eprint: https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2016.1160268},
	keywords = {Digital campaigning, gender, interactivity, personalization, Twitter},
	pages = {295--310},
	file = {Snapshot:/Users/schuermann/Zotero/storage/RSDVSDV3/19331681.2016.html:text/html},
}

@article{wagner_i_2017,
	title = {I {Am} {Woman}, {Hear} {Me} {Tweet}! {Gender} {Differences} in {Twitter} {Use} among {Congressional} {Candidates}},
	volume = {38},
	issn = {1554-477X},
	abstract = {This study synthesizes two theoretical literatures to explain gender differences in Twitter usage and effectiveness among US Congressional candidates. The first suggests that candidates in perceived disadvantaged positions, females in this case, innovate to improve their chances of success, and the second, that female politicians often adopt stereotypically masculine behaviors to be successful. On the basis of these theories, we hypothesize and confirm that female candidates are more likely than males to integrate Twitter into their campaigns, but our results are less conclusive regarding a difference in the likelihood that females use negative campaigning tactics via Twitter. Our results also indicate that those females who use Twitter more than their male counterparts tended to do better electorally, but this difference is conditional. Female Republican candidates who tweeted more increased their vote share, but the opposite is true for Democrats. We speculate that this differential effect may be a product of different audiences for social media in each party’s electorate.},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2022-01-12},
	journal = {Journal of Women, Politics \& Policy},
	author = {Wagner, Kevin M. and Gainous, Jason and Holman, Mirya R.},
	month = oct,
	year = {2017},
	note = {Publisher: Routledge
\_eprint: https://doi.org/10.1080/1554477X.2016.1268871},
	keywords = {campaign communication, campaigns and elections, gender, social media, Twitter},
	pages = {430--455},
	file = {Snapshot:/Users/schuermann/Zotero/storage/ILHWWJ2N/1554477X.2016.html:text/html},
}

@article{evans_women_2016,
	title = {Do women only talk about “female issues”? {Gender} and issue discussion on {Twitter}},
	volume = {40},
	issn = {1468-4527},
	shorttitle = {Do women only talk about “female issues”?},
	abstract = {Purpose Recent research has shown that female US House candidates were more likely to talk about so-called “female issues” on Twitter during the 2012 election (Evans and Clark, 2015). In this paper, the author extends this former work by investigating the Twitter activity of all US House representatives during their 2012 election and seven months later (June and July of 2013). The purpose of this paper is to show that women do talk more about “female issues” than men, but do not only focus on these issues.Design/methodology/approach This paper content analyzes the tweets sent by female and male representatives in the 113th Congress during their 2012 elections, and seven months later.Findings Female representatives spend significantly more time devoted to “female issues” on Twitter than male representatives, but their time is not dominated entirely by “female issues.” Even though the difference is not statistically significant, women sent more tweets about “male issues” than men both during and after the 2012 election. Women tweet more than men about “women,” but they also care about business issues, as is evidenced by that issue being one of the most discussed on Twitter by female representatives during both the election and seven months later.Originality/value Unlike other studies on gender and issue discussion, this paper examines a new type of communication: Twitter. Tweets are split by issue type (female/male) and the author sees that while women do discuss “female issues” more than men, they do not exclude “male issues.” This paper also shows that women focus on “female issues” both during elections and after.},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2022-01-12},
	journal = {Online Information Review},
	author = {Evans, Heather},
	month = jan,
	year = {2016},
	note = {Publisher: Emerald Group Publishing Limited},
	pages = {660--672},
	file = {Snapshot:/Users/schuermann/Zotero/storage/FWS683YG/pdf.html:text/html},
}

@article{evans_you_2016,
	title = {“{You} {Tweet} {Like} a {Girl}!”: {How} {Female} {Candidates} {Campaign} on {Twitter}},
	volume = {44},
	issn = {1532-673X},
	shorttitle = {“{You} {Tweet} {Like} a {Girl}!”},
	abstract = {We investigate the Twitter activity of all congressional candidates leading up to the 2012 U.S. House elections to assess whether there are significant differences in the tone and content of the tweets from male and female candidates. We argue that the electoral environment will have a significant effect over whether candidates engage in negative tweeting, address political issues, and discuss so-called “women’s issues” on Twitter. We find that gender has both a direct and contextual effect on candidates’ communication style on Twitter. Female candidates tweet significantly more “attack-style” messages than their male counterparts, discuss policy issues at a significantly higher rate, and women representatives focus more on “women’s issues.” We also find strong contextual effects in races with more female candidates: There is significantly more tweeting about political issues as well as significantly more negative attack-style tweets. However, with more female candidates, the number of tweets about “women’s issues” declines.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2022-01-12},
	journal = {American Politics Research},
	author = {Evans, Heather and Clark, Jennifer Hayes},
	month = mar,
	year = {2016},
	note = {Publisher: SAGE Publications Inc},
	keywords = {campaign communication, gender, social media, Twitter},
	pages = {326--352},
	file = {SAGE PDF Full Text:/Users/schuermann/Zotero/storage/B3Z8QQSC/Evans and Clark - 2016 - “You Tweet Like a Girl!” How Female Candidates Ca.pdf:application/pdf},
}



@article{zittel_individualised_2008,
	title = {Individualised constituency campaigns in mixed-member electoral systems: {Candidates} in the 2005 {German} elections},
	volume = {31},
	shorttitle = {Individualised constituency campaigns in mixed-member electoral systems},
	number = {5},
	journal = {West European Politics},
	author = {Zittel, Thomas and Gschwend, Thomas},
	year = {2008},
	pages = {978--1003},
}

@article{zittel_geographic_2019,
	title = {Geographic {Representation} in {Party}-{Dominated} {Legislatures}: {A} {Quantitative} {Text} {Analysis} of {Parliamentary} {Questions} in the {German} {Bundestag}},
	volume = {44},
	number = {4},
	journal = {Legislative Studies Quarterly},
	author = {Zittel, Thomas and Nyhuis, Dominic and Baumann, Markus},
	year = {2019},
	pages = {681--711},
}



